Pavlovian Conditioning’s Cause and Effect Relationship With Overdose Essay Example for Free

Pavlovian Conditioning’s Cause and Effect Relationship With Overdose Essay Summary: Harm Reduction Journal Gerevich, Bacskai, Farkas, and Danics’ case report studied if Pavlovian conditioning can directly relate to death from overdose. The case followed a young that had been treated multiple times for an addiction to heroin. As a result for the multiple treatments studies have shown that drug overdose occurs most frequently when the patient accustomed to the drug gives up its use then after a while attempts to continue addictive behavior with the same dose before withdrawal. His daily dose had not differed even the fatal overdose, thus proving the conditioned tolerance failed to operate. This indicates that morphine concentrations measured in cases of drug related death do not differ substantially form those measured in cases where the outcome is not fatal. Conditioning can contribute to prevention of fatal cases however, also contribute to cases of tolerance becoming fatal. Summary: Pavlovian conditioning and Drug Overdose: When Tolerance Fails  Siegel’s performed a study of that which Pavlovian conditioning and drug overdose play an important and integral relationship with one another. Siegel researched and studied cases of overdose and examined rats injected with an opiate. He observed that Pavlovian conditioning contributes to tolerance when the user begins to make observations of the effects of the drug in the presence of cues that were previously paired with the drug. Two stimuli are present and one will presumably predict the other, this includes the drug. When the tolerance the chance for overdose increases as well. The unconditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s conditioning is the effect of the drug.  This conditioning makes relapsing common because of the craving for unconditioned stimulus. It is necessary to allow extinction the cues that are presented with the drug in order for recovery. Overdose doesn’t necessarily have to c ome from the conditioning process but many experiments verify a higher risk if conditions are present. In 1927 Ivan Pavlov studied a direct relationship between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. As the result of as series of conditionings, Pavlov discovered that the conditioned stimulus is able to create the same response as the unconditioned stimulus over a period of time. The relationship of the two is evident and a major factor in fatal overdoses, whether in drug overdose or binge drinking. The correlation between classic conditioning and overdose can be observed where tolerance fails. If one were to treat an addiction, one must acknowledge the conditioning process and eliminate conditioned cues related with the drug (Bacskai, Danics, Farkas Gerevich, 2005). Cases where tolerance failed can be directly found in classical conditioning involved with drug or drinking paired cues and environmental cues as well as associated with the addiction, therefore the cue must be eliminated in order for proper recovery. Tolerance plays a crucial role in overdose as well as addiction. Overdose becomes fatal when tolerance does not occur. According to Siegel, â€Å"Evidence that drug tolerance depends not only upon experience with the drug but also experience with the drug-paired cues† (p. 505, 2001). Addicts suffer from overdose primarily because they do not show the level of tolerance that they expect in drug-experienced individuals (Siegel, 2001). Those suffering with addiction have become conditioned not only physically, but also emotionally in need of the high that is released with a substance. The addiction is the conditioned stimulus, which leaves room for the effects of the drug or drink to be the unconditioned stimulus. Siegel found that events that occur during the drug administration directly correspond to a Pavlovian conditioning trial (2001). Over time the effects become a conditioned response in which they will relate the experience of the high as a cue. Cues are dangerous when de aling with conditioning and treatment. Cues accompanying the drug effect function as CSs, and the direct drug effect constitutes the UCS. Prior to any learning, this UCS elicits responses- UCRs- that compensate for drug-induced disturbances. After some pairings of the pre-drugs CS and pharmacological UCS, the drug compensatory response are elicited by drug-paired stimuli as CRs (Siegel, 2001, p. 505). Thus, in approach to treatment prior to an overdose, the cues must be eliminated. In the study by Siegel, it is studied that drugs and alcohol in particular will have a greater impact if they are administered in the presence of unique cues rather than in the presence of predictable cues that it is associated with (2011). In Bacskai, Danics, Farkas and Gerevich study, they followed the life of an addict which overdosed and claimed that the user could not recover properly due to learned conditioning regarding his heroin addiction. In the autopsy report they were able to clarify that his over dosage was the exact same as his no rmal dosage of .05mg/L. â€Å"The fatal consequences of the heroin injection may have been caused by the failure in the action of conditioned tolerance† (Bacskai, Danics, Farkas Gerevich, 2005). Environmental cues are also factors of conditioning that are paired with cases of overdose. The term tolerance situational-specificity, according to Siegel, results because we prepare ourselves in advance for the psychological changes produced by the drug when we are provided with certain cues that a drug or drink can imminent (2011). An example can be taken from Shapiro and Nathan in1986 when they studied the relationship between environmental cues and substance ingested. They had two groups, one that drank at home and one that drank in the lab environment. After 10 days they reversed the environment for the remaining participants. Upon the discovery they realized that those who had consumed alcohol in the lab environment were less affected in their performance tasks than those who consumed alcohol in the home environment. This demonstrating that tolerance was situationally precise to the environment in which the alcohol was once consumed. Environmental cues can be anywhere from a p arty to a room in a house. They can also be an atmosphere or specific type of people. It is important to identify these cues apart from the actual addiction. Now that cues can be identified separate from the drug of drink, the conditioned  response must be eliminated in order to treat recovery. Pavlov discovered that in order to eliminate a behavior, it is necessary to remove or substitute the conditioned stimulus. In order to eliminate any such cue, one must identify the cues present. In severe cases one might create a lesion in the hippocampal area located in the brain but it is not completely necessary. The most likely case in elimination is when a conditioned response becomes extinct. In order for extinction to occur the conditioned stimulus must be presented without the unconditioned stimulus. An example of a drug or drinking paired cue could be a positive or negative factor, like vomiting or, a party like environment. The cue can be created with induced vomiting when the drug or alcohol is present. This creates a fear tactic, which becomes associated with the addiction and thus making one afraid of the substance. Environmental cues can be both simple and difficult to eliminate. One must be taken out of his or hers setting of addiction. This could mean a living room, bathroom, party scene, work scene, or anywhere that the drug or drinking is associated with. These environments can cause pr essure in the subconscious toward the substance. Remember the Shapiro and Nathan experiment in1986; environment does affect one’s attitude toward the addiction. In Siegel’s 2001 study he discovered that when heroin was injected in an unfamiliar place the user is not as dangerous or place to overdose. The dangers of not eliminating cues can allow tolerance to take its role until overdose occurs. â€Å"Users familiar with the concept of conditioned place preference could have greater chances of survival than those who are not aware of it† (Bacskai, Danics, Farkas Gerevich, 2005). Demonstrating that it is necessary for the cues to be eliminated to reduce the risk of overdose. Therefore, Pavlov’s conditioning has a direct and present relationship involved in overdose cases. Conditioning turns unconditioned stimulus into conditioned responses. The responses can act as cues, which can trigger the addiction. Cues can be both drug, or drinking paired and environmentally stimulated. Tolerance has been proven to fail in fatal cases of overdose due to classical conditioning. In order to recover properly these cues must be eliminated. Treatments can include anything from fear tactics, to removing  the entire substance. Severe cases of addiction, which relate to overdose can be treated with lesions in the brain. References Gerevich, J., Bacskai, E., Farkas, L., Danics, Z. (2005). A case report: Pavlovian conditioning as a risk factor of heroin â€Å"overdose† death. Harm Reduction Journal, 2. Siegel, S. (2011). The Four-Loko Effect. Perspective on Psychological Science, 6, 357-361. Siegel, S. (2001). Pavlovian conditioning and drug overdose: When tolerance fails. Addiction Research and Theory, 9, 503-513. Shapiro, A. P., Nathan, P. E. (1986). Human tolerance to alcohol† The role of Pavlovian conditioning processes. Psychopharmacology, 88, 90, 95.

Investigation into Stress Capacity

Investigation into Stress Capacity This physics experiment was conducted to investigate stress capacity or known as tensile strength. We had to determine the relationship between the force applied on an object and the extension of the elastic material. The link between the force applied and the extension of the spring is governed by Hookes Law. To establish this connection, we need to measure the relationship between the force applied and the extension. We did this by adding a series of masses, which builds the force on the spring (The Professor, 2016). Hookes Law: When an elastic object is stretched, the expanded length is called extension. The extension of the elastic object is directly proportional to the force applied to it also known as F=kx. F is Force and expressed in Newtons (N). k is the spring constant expressed in newtons per metre (N/m) x is the extension expressed in metres (m). (BBC Bitesize, 2016) A force causes an object to undergo changes, forces that are unbalanced change speed, shape or direction. Gravitational forces are only in effect if there are two or more masses while friction opposes motion (BBC Bitesize,2017). Forces that affected this experiment are: Gravitational Force, Applied Force, Tensional Force. Gravitational Force: A force of attraction between all objects, it depends on the masses of the object and the distance between them. The larger object, the stronger the gravitational force. Applied Force: A force when an object is being pushed or pulled by another object. Applied forces causes an object to undergo changes in acceleration, velocity and direction. The force equation is F=ma. Tensional Force: It is a force that is transmitted through a string, cable, elastic band, rope or a wire. Tensional force is directed along the length of the object when it is pulled by forces from opposite ends. The relationship between stress and strain is known as the stress-strain curve. It is different for each material and is found by recording the amount of deformation at distinct intervals of tensile or compressive loading. Strain is relative change in shape or size of an object due to externally applied forces. This means it becomes dimensionless and has no units. Stress is the internal force (per unit area) associated with strain. It is predicted that the two materials will show different conclusions. I believe that the silicon tube has higher capability of holding larger masses. It depends on the length and thickness of the material. The prediction is that the silicon tube will have the highest stress capacity and wont have a long extension while the elastic band will stretch the furthest but wons have much stress capacity. Equipment Retort Stand Clamp 1 Metre Ruler Mass Hanger Silicon Tube Elastic Band 50g and 100g Masses Notebook and Pen Procedure Setup Retort stand and clamp. To start with, place the material/object on without any stress. Measure the weight of the mass hanger. Measure the length of the material/object. Place mass on it and measure the length to figure out extension Record results on table Repeat step 5, three times for each weight to allow results to be reliable then find average. Keep repeating step 5,6,7 until enough data has been recorded for each material Milan Abraham Elastic Band Mass (kg) Force Original Length 1st Extension 2nd Extension 3rd Extension Average 0 0 14.9 0.061 0.60N 14.9 +1.1 (16) +0.9 (15.8) +1 (15.9) +1 (15.9) 0.161 1.58N 14.9 +1.5 (16.4) +1.4 (16.3) +1.5 (16.4) +1.5 (16.4) 0.261 2.56N 14.9 +1.8 (16.7) +1.7 (16.6) +1.9 (16.8) +1.8 (16.7) 0.361 3.54N 14.9 +2.1 (17) +2 (16.9) +2.2 (17.1) +2.1 (17) 0.461 4.52N 14.9 +2.4 (17.3) +2.3 (17.2) +2.6 (17.5) +2.4 (17.3) 0.561 5.50N 14.9 +2.9 (17.8) +2.9 (17.8) +2.7 (17.6) +2.8 (17.7) Milan Abraham Silicon Tube Mass (kg) Force Original Length 1st Extension 2nd Extension 3rd Extension Average 0 0 72.2 0.061 0.60N 72.2 +2.3 (74.5) +2.3 (74.5) +2.8 (75) +2.5 (74.7) 0.161 1.58N 72.2 +4.3 (76.5) +4.3 (76.5) +4.3 (76.5) +4.3 (76.5) 0.261 2.56N 72.2 +5.3 (77.5) +6.3 (78.5) +5.8 (78) +5.8 (78) 0.361 3.54N 72.2 +7.8 (80) +7.8 (80) +8.3 (80.5) +8 (80.2) 0.461 4.52N 72.2 +8.8 (81) +8.3 (80.5) +8.8 (81) +8.6 (80.8) 0.561 5.50N 72.2 +10.3 (82.5) +9.8 (82) +9.8 (82) +10 (82.2) 0.98 1.4 0.7 The Elastic band and Silicon tube was hung vertically with a mass hanger to the end of the material. Masses from 61g to 561g were added. The length of the elastic band was measured once it was at rest. In this structure, certain forces were in effect. Gravitational force directed the hanging masses downwards. The Applied Force in this case is the masses pushes the elastic material downwards with gravity supporting it.   Restoring Force directs the elastic material upwards, in the opposite direction of displacement. Tension is directed through each material pulling each end. Using Newtons Law the spring constant was calculated for each material. F=ma was transferred into W=mg to calculate gravity. To find the spring constant for the elastic band, mass was turned into dynes. Gravity times mass= dynes. 9836.07 times 0.561 = 5518.04 dynes. Then it is dynes divided by extension(cm) which is 5518.07 divided by 2.8 = 1970.74 dynes/cm which is 1.97N/m. The spring constant for the silicon t ube was which is 0.55N/m. The intercept for the best fit straight line is close to the origin and is also consistent with Hookes Law. To minimise errors, we should have viewed the ruler from specific angles to make sure it was vertical. The scale should be viewed at eye level to avoid parallax error. There were some issues with the retort stand so some equipment was not fit for the experiment and were faulty. In some instances, we needed to make sure that when the person was adding mass, he didnt stretch the material while he was doing it so the results could be accurate. We reduced the decimal places to two so that results could be easy to substitute while being accurate. The hypothesis was predicted to be that the elastic band while have a longer extension than the silicon tube and the silicon tube would be stronger than the elastic band. The prediction wasnt correct as from results it says that silicon tube had a bigger extension which was a surprising result as the material was much thicker. The elastic band had the best result because it showed results that were somewhat predicted and accurate. Through this experiment investigated stress capacity, Hookes Law and certain forces which have influenced the experiment. The hypothesis wasnt as predicted. For this experiment, we determine the spring constant and Youngs Module, we had to interpret the behaviour of two different materials. The results will be analysed to determine what is happening to the materials physically and which one is more capable of the masses. The two types of materials used for this experiment were an elastic band and a tube of silicon rubber.

Review of SInce Yesterday :: essays research papers

Review of Frederick Lewis Allen: Since Yesterday: the 1930’s America. (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc., 1939), 362 pp.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Frederick Lewis Allen’s book tells in great detail how the average American would have lived in the 1930’s. He covers everything from fashion to politics and everything in between. He opens with a portrait of American life on September 3, 1929, the day before the first major stock market crash. His telling of the events immediately preceding and following this crash, and the ensuing panic describe a scene which was unimaginable before.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He quickly moves from the panic of 1929 to the ‘30’s and how many of the popular governmental sentiments during the election were no longer so. Hoover quickly moved from a position of public acceptance and admiration to that of a scapegoat. That the Depression was his fault is not entirely true, though. Hoover did not have much of the information needed to foretell the economic situation. In the laissez-faire form of government he prescribed, there was no place for a department that would document these things for the use of the president’s office.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hoover is also vilified repeatedly for his inaction with the Depression. His personal policy and his party’s policy were designed to let the country find its own way, for if it became dependent on government aide, it would be a weaker nation that if it found it’s own way. This was a flawed assumption on their behalf though, because even in the 1920’s, there was a movement from many of the nation’s younger voters advocating change.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The overall feeling that Mr. Allen explains so well is that of fear. Many Americans were afraid of what might happen to them economically. There were cities where eighty-four percent of the working population was unemployed. Everywhere in the nation, banks were closing because of their inability to collect from debtors. This not only affected those working for the bank, it affected most people in the city as well. In small cities where there were only two or three banks, a third or half of the population could be without their life savings. Add to that high unemployment, and many people were left starving.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mr. Allen also speaks in depth of the farmers. The Farmer’s Holiday occurred when Milo Reno organized Iowan farmers and got them to â€Å"refuse to bring food into Sioux City for thirty days, ‘or until the cost of production had been obtained† (86).

F. Scott Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby is Great Essay -- Reviews Fitzg

F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby is Great F. Scott Fitzgerald, known by some as author of fluffy magazine articles, has shocked us with the recent release of The Great Gatsby. Breaking from his reputation as a clichà © reporter (his most recent work was on the latest women’s shoe style) Fitzgerald proves himself a true intellectual with this tremendous novel. Using eloquent prose and a style fresh to today’s literature scene, he captures the essence of modern culture. The lavish parties in Gatsby are perfect illustrations of our social lives that have become overzealous and desperate in light of the controversial prohibition laws. Fitzgerald describes the â€Å"floating rounds of cocktails permeat[ing] the garden† and â€Å"amusement park† behavior of typical partygoers with unmatchable insight (40). The debonair host, Gatsby, is a man we have all met at some point—significantly wealthy and relentlessly mysterious. Fitzgerald presents brilliantly complex characters whose contrasting life views represent the sentiments of today. Gatsby’s zealous romanticism is praiseworthy in the face of inevitable corruption. He willfully denies that the world is fragile and clings to his romantic aspirations. Fitzgerald counters this romanticism with characters Tom and Jordan—forceful, blunt characters whose realism starkly contrasts Daisy’s flippant responsiveness and Gatsby’s dreamy aura. The intricacy of these characters warrants significant attention to Fitzgerald’s recent accomplishment as a writer. Offering further social commentary, Tom Buchanan blatantly and exaggeratingly points to a common undertone among today’s upper class when he says, â€Å"Civilization is going to pieces†¦it’s up to us, the dominant rac... ... spirit and its resulting absurdity in a bizarre scene where Daisy whispers, â€Å"’I’d like to just get one of those pink clouds and put you in it and push you around’† (94). Through such scenes, the author shows us â€Å"a satisfactory hint of the unreality of reality, a promise that the rock of the world was founded securely on fairy’s wings†Ã¢â‚¬â€a brilliantly paradoxical statement unique to Fitzgerald’s work (99). With beautiful language unprecedented by any work up to date, Fitzgerald presents a work thematically and aesthetically profound. His characters are remarkably applicable to modern behavior as they express commonly felt sentiments. Critics are truly astounded at Fitzgerald’s poeticism and metaphorical writing style; we can hardly believe that Gatsby is a work by the disregarded magazine columnist. We hope to see more quality works from Fitzgerald.

The True Value of Street Art Essay -- When Does Graffiti Become Art?

Mention the word graffiti and what typically comes to mind is something unpleasant and distasteful like indecent language scribbled on a wall of a store or crude pictures. Most graffiti is characterized as vandalism on property that does not belong to the culprit. Graffiti also displays negative graphics that promote some type of vulgar message such as violence, sex, drugs, gangs, and racism. On the other hand, when the terms â€Å"street† and â€Å"art† come together, a blast of colorful creations upon blank slates on the street comes to mind. Although street art is technically considered graffiti, it is a type of graffiti with positive qualities, but certain figures in society find street art to be, in some way, disruptive. If used properly, street art can be appreciated artistically and socially. Despite the negative stigma attached to graffiti, street art has emerged as a progressive valuable art form whose vast history, surge in popularity, and urge for social chan ge warrant its classification as a fine art. Those who argue that street art is nothing more than graffiti that violates personal property do not characterize it as a valuable art form. These critics argue that some places cannot afford to keep the property clean; if it gets really bad, the whole building will have to be painted, and that is expensive (O’Lear). Unwanted artwork will cause economic problems with removing the art from illegally used canvases such as building, billboards, and sidewalks. Critics also uphold that there are numerous outlets that people could use that are more tasteful and less destructive. (O’Lear). Turkey Stremmel, the co-owner of Stremmel Gallery, suggests that there are other ways to create the murals artists plaster on street surfaces. Artis... ...sh." The Nevada Sagebrush [Reno, Nevada] 4 Apr. 2011. The Nevada Sagebrush - The Student Newspaper of the University of Nevada, Reno. University of Nevada, 4 Apr. 2011. Web. 05 Dec. 2011. . "Tracing the Roots of Modern Street-Art and Graffiti." Tracing the Roots of Modern Street-Art and Graffiti | WebUrbanist. WebUrbanist | From Urban Art & 3D Graffiti to Abandoned Cities. Webist Media Publishing, 22 Apr. 2009. Web. 05 Dec. 2011. . Wildman, Luke. "Why Banksy Canvas Art Is So Popular." Entertainment Articles - EzineMark - Free Content Article Directory. EzineMark, 28 Mar. 2010. Web. 05 Dec. 2011. .

Prayer in School

Monique Holmes Argumentative Writing Final Paper Dr. George Pullman Introduction School prayer is a major controversy of this society. Public schools are supported with taxpayer money and you have a lot of believers who want his or her taxes to support an institution that prohibits children from praying in school, but at the same time, you have a loot of believers that don’t want to support an institution that prohibits their children from prayer in schools. The First Amendment of the United States protects both believers’ ands non believers from this situation by mandating government neutrality between belief and non belief.All children have the right to pray voluntary just not through the public school system. Prayer Should be Allowed in the Public School System School prayer is a very controversial issue in our society today. The question that people are having issues with is whether or not school prayer should be allowed in the public school system. The main issue i s if students should be allowed to pray as a class at the start of the day. Prayer in school has been a major conflict between people therefore there have been a lot of court cases.There were a number of cases that has changed the policy of prayer in the public school system. Thomas Jefferson had spoken of public education ands said, â€Å"One goal of democracy is the recognition, solution, and tolerance of controversy; public education should prepare citizens for this reality†. People do need to be prepared because religion is a very Holmes common controversy. If religion is removed from the public education system then one must know that the system is then defective to the school because how are children to know how to deal with the controversy that comes with religion?Prayer should be slowed in school. One must remember the Equal Access Act of 1984, which says that prayer is an important part of America’s spiritual heritage and the First Amendment (Freedom of Speech ). If prayer in schools is so bad like people like to say or think than how come there are so many people who are for prayer in school? School prayer shouldn’t be removed from the public school system because of the Equal Access Act of 1984. This Act states that a federally funded public high is required to permit religious meetings if clubs that are not related to the curriculum is allowed.There are a number of religious groups in some schools, but of course they don’t get the same privileges as the clubs that are non-religious related. The Equal Access Act of 1984 was formed to change this fact. At some schools, students are allowed to organize a bible study group as well as other religious clubs (www. religioustolerance. org). These particular clubs are allowed to meet on school grounds and they are able to advertise on school property just like the other non-religious clubs (www. religioustolerance. org).Students who want to have a religious club should not be infl uenced by the board, teachers, principals, or any staff of the school. They should not be ridiculed because of this. The Equal Access Act of 1984 is good because these students will now be able to form a religious group if they want. If athletes, musicians and artists can show and do what they believe than religious groups should be able to do the same. Prayer should be a part of our school systems because it is an important part of America’s spiritual heritage.All throughout America’s history there have been many important documents written with references to â€Å"Almighty God,† â€Å"Thy Blessings,† â€Å"Our dependence upon Thee,† and â€Å"In God We Trust. † These documents are Holmes the Declaration of Independence, the Gettysburg Address, the National Anthem, the Presidential Oath and even U. S. Currency. In school children starts the day with pledge which states â€Å"one Nation under God. † A prayer says that students just wa nt to ask for a good day and guidance throughout the day. Prayer and religion is an important part of the American tradition. It has been said that the children benefit from people turning to God on their behalf and they benefit even more when they turn to God for help† (Christian Science Monitor 2). If prayer is kept out of the school system, they are teaching students that traditions are not important and that what this country was founded upon doesn’t matter. Our forefathers wanted us to have religious freedom, so what would you want children to disrespect that. People don’t want to see out nation fall but it will if we don’t show children the value of prayer.School prayer is important because it shows and teaches what this nation stands for and it helps create better morals. By allowing children to pray at the beginning of school it gives them a chance to learn better and focus on school because their mind will be cleared. It is known that students who pray before school do better in school than those who don’t. So if we want our children to do better we must let them pray in school. We have lost if we eliminate prayer from school. Our nation will definitely fall. Nothing in the First Amendment converts our public schools into religionfree zones or requires all religious expression to be left at the schoolhouse door† (Bill Clinton on prayer in school). If what Clinton say is true then why do people want to eliminate prayer in school? The issue is that they don’t want to deal with controversy but by doing this they are not teaching children how to handle controversy they are teaching them to ignore it. They should let the children decide if they want to pray or not. If the students don’t want to pray than they don’t have to pray then they shouldn’t.They have the right to pray in school and should not be looked Holmes down at if they choose to do so. No one is being hurt by prayer being in t he public school system. The First Amendment gives people the right to express their religion openly and not be questioned about their beliefs. The former president, Harry Truman once stated that prayer â€Å"never hurt anybody and made good citizens out of them. † The First Amendment states that people can express their beliefs freely and openly anywhere that they want and that should include school as well.School prayer should be in the public school systems because of the Equal Access Act of 1984, prayer is an important part of America’s spiritual heritage and the First Amendment (Freedom of Speech). Even with all of the court cases in which judges have ruled that prayer in school is unconstitutional, students still form prayer groups. One of the reasons why prayer is removed from school is because people think that they will have to partake in that religion and it will dominate over all. But this is simply not true.No one is asking for people to change their belief s. Why is it a big issue for prayer to be in class when it is said in a number of school functions? Prayers are said at athletic games, to ensure safety and protection and at graduation ceremonies. How come this isn’t an issue? There a re a number of arguments that are for prayer in school: The Chief Justice of the Court of Appeals stated, â€Å"The belief and trust in a creator has always been regarded as an integral and inseparable part of the fabric of our fundamental institutions. Harry Truman said that prayer â€Å"never hurt anybody and made good citizens out of them. † Rep. James Traficant said, â€Å"A Congress that allows God to be banned from our schools while our schools can teach about cults, Hitler and even devil worship is wrong, out of touch and need some commonsense. † Prayer in school will increase tolerance in schools because children will be able to learn of different religions and how they are practiced. It will also bring to surface questio ns that Holmes children have about God and religion and allow them to search for their own belief system.Bringing prayer into schools will allow them to search for their own belief system. Bringing prayer into schools will also help reverse the moral degradation of this country. Prayer should be allowed in the public school system so that our children can start their day off in the right direction. Prayer Should Not be Allowed in the Public School System The public school system should not allow prayer into the public school system because it is against the idea of separation of church and state.The public schools are for education it is not a place where religion should be taught, that is what church is for. â€Å"Public schools can neither foster religion nor preclude it. Our public schools must treat religion with fairness and respect and vigorously protect religious expression as well as the freedom of conscience of all other students. In so doing our public schools reaffirm th e First Amendment and enrich the lives of their students† ( Secretary of Education Richard W. Riley June 1998 ).One must remember that in a public school system, these children are from all religion backgrounds, such as Baptist, Catholic, Quaker, Jewish, Muslim and atheist. â€Å"School sponsorship of a religious message is impermissible because it sends the ancillary message to members of the audience who are nonadherents that they are outsiders, not full members of the political community, and an accompanying message to adherents that they are insiders, favored members of the political community † (U.S. Supreme Court ruling, Santa Fe v. Doe, (2000). Public schools are supported by taxpayers and even they are of different beliefs, so therefore, the schools should be free from religious coercion. In the bible, it says that Jesus didn’t approve of outward prayer, â€Å"Thou shalt not be as the hypocrites ate: for they love to Holmes pray standing in synagogues an d in the corners of the streets that they may be seen of men.But thou, when thou prayest, enter into thy closet and when thou hast shut the door, pray to thy Father which is in secret† (Matthew 6:5-6). By allowing prayer into public schools violates the First Amendment which states that â€Å"congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the government for a redress of grievances† (First Amendment of the Constitution).The Establishment Clause renders the government from endorsing or favoring religion or any form of religions expression and The Free Speech and Free Exercise Clauses requires that the government doesn’t trample on one’s opportunities to engage in expressive conduct. No one should be required to participate in prayer. The government does not have the right to make peo ple pray in school. Annie Laurie Gaylor quoted Thomas Jefferson in her article, The Case against School Prayer â€Å"No citizen shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or ministry whatsoever. People should not be subject to do anything they don’t believe in. Prayer should not be allowed in school because of church and state and the First Amendment. â€Å"To secure the people's right to acknowledge God according to the dictates of conscience: Neither the United States nor any State shall establish any official religion, but the people's right to pray and to recognize their religious beliefs, heritage, and traditions on public property, including schools, shall not be infringed.The United States and the States shall not compose school prayers, not require any person to join in prayer or other religious activity† (Congressperson Ernest Istook Proposed amendment to the U. S. Constitution). To have prayer in school is against the idea of sep aration of church and state. Holmes Public schools are for education not religion. â€Å"I'm a Catholic and I hope a devout one, but I think that the public school classroom is no place for me to try and impose my world formula for prayer on children who on't share it, and for that very reason, I don't want my children in a public school classroom to be exposed to someone else's religion or formula† (Senator Phillip A. Hart :Michigan). Every child should not have to say prayer in the classroom because not everyone believes in the same thing. Students that choose to pray are already given the ability to do so because they are given a moment of silence where the student can do anything he or she wants as long as the entire class is not involved.Students have a voluntary right to pray but people want it to be where a group can pray and that should not be allowed. By establishing prayer in the public school system, it will only cause more turmoil for our society. Ulysses Grant st arted in the President’s Speech at Des Moines â€Å"to leave the matter of religion to the family altar, the church, and the private schools, supported entirely by private contributions. Keep the church and state forever separate. School prayer should not be allowed in the schools because of the idea of separation of church and state and the First Amendment. Religion is private and these schools are neither private, which shows that they do nor mix. To bring the public schools builds walls between children who may have not been aware of some religious beliefs. The practice of prayer in school will create unnecessary divisions among children by making them aware of religious differences. Public schools are for everyone, no matter their religion.The practice if organized prayer in schools will invade the children’s right to an education that is free of the discrimination that organized prayer would encourage. When schools have prayer in class, it singles out the theolog y being taught. Forbidding prayer in schools does not discourage religion but instead it prevents offensive alienation of students who have viewpoints which conflict with the established religion. By allowing prayer in school, Holmes it will threaten what parents have already taught their children.It will be undermining what we teach our children about religion. We must protect ourselves against organized prayer by keeping coercive prayer out of our children’s schools. Work Cited Bill Jager, â€Å"Public School Prayer Creates Violence,† at: Holmes http://www. mindspring. com/~wjager/ Gaylor, Annie Laurie. The Case Aainst School Prayer. â€Å"Keep the Church and State Forever Separate. † Madison, Wisconsin: Freedom From Religion Foundation, Inc. 1995 Matt Pyeatt. â€Å"Congressman Urges School Prayer Constitutional Amendment,† CNSNews. om, at: http://www. botcw. com/talk/ Religion and Prayer in U. S. Public Schools : www. religioustolerance. org The Holy B ible â€Å"New Tesatment† St. Matthew 6:5-6 The resolution was passed on 2001-NOV-7. The vote was 5 to 4. See: Gene Garman, â€Å"Lafayette School Board resolution on public prayer,† at: http:// www. sunnetworks. net/~ggarman/ The web site contains a point-by-point rebuttal. â€Å"Topic: Prayer in School,† AmarilloNet. com bulletin board at: http://www. amarillonet. com/ubb/Forum34/ Holmes

Alber Bandura

This theory argues that learning occurs by interacting with other people and observing people's actions as well as the consequences of their attitudes and behavior. This essay explores Bandanna's Social Learning Theory as well as how it helps us understand learning in the context of the classroom. Bandeau â€Å"discussed human behavior wealth a framework of triadic reciprocally. † (Shuns, 2012, p. 119). Treadle reciprocally Is delved Into three components: the environment, cognition and behavior (Shuns, 201 2, p. 1 19). These factors are dependent on each other.The environment influences cognition, cognition influences behavior and behavior influences environment. However there is variation in which is the dominating factor. (Shuns, 2012, p. 120). In social learning theory: Learning is largely an information processing activity in which information about the structure of behavior and about environmental events is transformed into symbolic representations that serve as guides f or action. (Bandeau, 1986 as cited by Shuns, 2012, p. 121). According to Shuns (2012), the process of learning can be applied through inactive learning or vicariously.Inactive learning Is performing an action and reacting to the consequence of the action. Observing the reward and punishment resulting from the consequence of a person's actions are how people establish whether they should repeat the action in future or not. Learning vicariously occurs by observing other people's actions without having to experience it personally. If the action performed results in a negative consequence people will avoid performing this action in at a later time and vice versa. (Shuns, 2012, p. 121).For example, in a classroom if a child has not completed their homework ND does not receive punishment from the teacher the child will continue to not complete their homework. When other children observe this they too will not complete their homework because It does not result In a negative consequence. Mo deling â€Å"refers to behavioral, cognitive and affective changes deriving from observing one or more models† (Bandeau, 1978; Shuns, 1987, 1 998: Zimmerman, 1977 observing others and imitating their behavior. (Shuns, 2012).It can be categorized into three key functions, these are response facilitation, inhibition/distribution and observational learning (Bandeau, 1986 as cited by Shuns, 2012, p. 125) People often lack motivation and therefore do not perform skills and behaviors that they have learnt (Shuns, 2012, p. 126). Response facilitation refers to â€Å"modeled actions that serve as social prompts for observers to act accordingly' 126). Response facilitation motivates the person to perform certain behaviors if the observer observes that the model has received a positive outcome (Shuns,2012,p. 126).For example in a classroom if learners observe that a certain pupil is getting praised for answering questions , they too will imitate this behavior. Observational learning i s a core component of Bandanna's theory (Craig, 1992, p. 176) . Bandeau states that people attain knowledge in a more efficient method by observing others. He also states that once they attain knowledge â€Å"they can reproduce it almost immediately' . However , though observational occurs people can choose whether or not to repeat that behavior based on the consequences The behavior one imitates is referred to as a model.It is divided into three models, a live model, in which a person actually performs behavior, a verbal instructional model which would consist of descriptions y talking and a symbolic model which is behavior performed in the media (Craig, 1992, p. 176). Observational learning consists of four components. These are the attention processes, retention processes, reproduction process and motivation process (Craig, 1992,p. 177) In order to† imitate a model† we have to â€Å"pay attention† to it(Bandeau,1971 as cited by Craig 1992 , p. 77). A model has to appeal to a person and capture their interest because then it will enable them to pay full attention to it. If a model does not appeal to a person they will not pay attention and it will negatively affect their earning. For example in a classroom , if learners notice that getting high grades will give you a position of power in school such as becoming a class prefect , learners will pay attention in class so that they are able to achieve this.The second process is the retention process. This requires you to retain what you have previously learned in a cognitive way so that you have the ability to reproduce it when you want to imitate the model. (Shuns,20120,p. 128) â€Å"A modeled display can be stored as an image, in verbal form, or both â€Å"(Bandeau, 1977 as cited by Chunk ,p. 1 28). T is a challenging task to retain information about activities that cannot be adequately described in words therefore imagine coding is essential(Shuns,2012, p. 128).Through rehearsing and cod ing the information that was stored in our memory, there is a higher chance of recalling prior information than that of The third process is production. It involves â€Å"translating visual and symbolic conceptions of modeled events into overt behaviors† (Shuns, 2012, p. 128). This involves reproducing the observed behavior. In order to reproduce it one needs to practice in order to develop the required skills needed. For example in a classroom if A teacher does an example of a mathematic sum on the board; students would have to attempt it several times in order to master the skill of solving it.The last process is the motivation process. It â€Å"influences observational learning† because the motivation encourages a person to interact more with the previous three processes (Shuns, 2012, p. 128). Bandeau distinguishes between the acquisition and the performance of new responses Even though you have observed the model you have the choice whether or not you will imitate the model. Motivation plays a significant role in imitating a model. According to there are different types of reinforcements such as â€Å"direct reinforcement†.If a person realizes they would be rewarded by imitating a mode they will be more motivated to perform that same behavior. (Craig, 1992, p. 178). For example the classroom if a teacher rewards a child for performing their work by praising them and giving them a gold star , other children will observe this behavior and imitate what the child is doing so that they may also be rewarded. â€Å"People attend to a model in part because they believe they might face the same taxation themselves and they want to learn the necessary actions to succeed† (Shuns, 2012, p. 34). In a classroom situation , learners would pay attention and observe what the teacher is doing because they would want to attain the necessary knowledge and skills in order for them to be successful ,this serves as motivation(Shuns,2012,p. 134). Paren ts and teachers are generally considered â€Å"high- status† models(Shuns,2012,p. 135). Younger children will observe teachers as models and in a classroom situation if a teacher exhibits behavior that encourages learning o be a means of acquiring approval and skills , the children will imitate that behavior.If a teacher does the opposite, learners will be discouraged and will not be motivated to learn. (Shuns, 2012, p. 135). Goals, values and self-efficacy play a significant role in learning. (Shuns, 2012, p. 138). Len classrooms if learners and teachers have a common goal such as completing a section of work or if learners have individual goals such as scoring above a certain mark on a test, it enhances â€Å"learning and performance through their effects on perceptions of progress, self-efficacy, and self evaluations† (Bandeau, 1988, 1997; Locke & Lethal, 1990, 2002; Chunk, 1990 as cited by Shuns, 2012, p. 138). T serves as a basis for learners to regulate their wor k and measure themselves against an expected standard. As cited by Shuns, 2012, p. 145). Len a classroom a teacher has to identity students values. This is especially important when teaching students how to set goals for themselves and in promoting self-efficacy. If a learner has this ability they will be able to learn effectively. â€Å"Values can be assessed against external and internal standards† (Shuns, 2012, p. 145). Children may observe some of their peers gaining a retain reward for neat work or completing neat work can be valued because it is how they gain teacher's approval. Shuns, 2012, p. 145) â€Å"Self-efficacy refers to personal beliefs about one's capabilities to learn or perform actions at a designated level† (Bandeau, AAA, Bibb m 1986,1993,1997 as cited by Shuns,2012, p. 146)). Bandeau suggests that there are â€Å"four sources of knowledge† with regards to â€Å"self-efficacy appraisals†(Craig,1992,p. 184). The first is actual performan ce. Succeeding in tasks regularly increases your self-efficacy and vice versa. The second is vicarious experiences. This is when we believe that we can succeed at a task because we see someone who has similar capabilities succeeding at it.The third is verbal persuasion. In a classroom if a teacher praises a student and makes them believe that they are capable of performing a task that student will have a stronger sense of efficacy and will start to believe in what the teacher is saying. The last is physiological cues, wherein we interpret our bodies' reactions to situations as a judgment of our abilities. (Craig, 1992, p. 184). â€Å"The models in one's environment provide an important source of information for gauging self-efficacy. Parents and other influential adults (e. G. , teachers, coaches) are key models in children's social environments. (Bandeau, Barreling, Caper, and Pastorally, 1996 as cited by Chunk, 2012, p. 149). Parents and teachers serve as important influences in children's learning performance and self-efficacy. Students seek appraisal from teachers and if a teacher motivates their learners by praising them and helping them improve by using positive methods, the learners will perform better and they will be motivated to succeed. If a teacher uses negative methods such as punishing a child for not understanding how to complete a piece of work, the learners will view learning as negative and they will not learn effectively (Shuns, 2012, p. 49). Another example would understand the content, if a teacher does not understand the work and does not believe in their capability to teach the work the learners will observe this in a negative way and will not want to learn. This is known as â€Å"instructional self-efficacy'. If a teacher believes that they are capable of teaching the work effectively they will dedicate more time and effort towards planning and caching lessons in more advanced ways.According to Bandeau, teachers who are supported by a dministrators and who have a high teaching efficacy will be more apt at approaching work with motivation and commitment. (Shuns, 2012, p. 150). Social Learning Theory is effective in helping students set goals and motivating them to succeed. In my opinion this theory is extremely effective and it presents models for students that enable them to observe work so that they may perform them later after they have acquired the necessary skills.